A Timeline of British History

Early British History

2500 BCE – Stonehenge is created by druids

In about 2500 BCE, a group known as the druids constructed a monument called Stonehenge. Very little information about the druids remains, as it appears that the druids left no written history. These druids were a Celtic people, who, it is believed, functioned as a priestly caste among their fellow citizens. It is believed that druids were likely well educated, and made up an elite portion of Celtic society.

The construction of Stonehenge remains a mystery, although many scholars have formulated theories to explain its existence. In fact, scholars still debate over the exact nature of the construction used to create the site. What is known, without conjecture, is that Stonehenge’s construction used very advanced techniques and that the orientation of the site is aligned with the winter solstice.

Both of these facts have given rise to tales and legend, leaving Stonehenge a mystery even today. But, it is important to note that Stonehenge paints a picture of Celtic and druidic culture during the early history of Britain, and it is a record that is still being gleaned for information. Stonehenge reveals a very different picture of life in Britain from the one many people believe about savages huddled around a fire, with no technology to speak of, and no hope of advancement. Stonehenge demonstrates that early settlers in Britain had a high degree of skilled labor—typically a mark of an advanced society.

55 BCE – Julius Caesar explores Britain

After rising to power in 60 BCE and being named consul of the Roman Republic, Gaius Julius Caesar began planning a series of expansive raids, designed with the conquest of new territory in mind. The British Isles, long known as a source of tin, was an important part of Caesar’s plan. Taking control of the natural resources of Britain (as the island came to be known) became a focus for Caesar’s expansion.

In 55 BCE, Caesar led an expedition to Britain, hoping to land at Dover, a region on the southern coast with an excellent harbor. However, the people of Britain, the Britons, gathered on an overlook of the harbor, and their apparent ferocity forced Caesar to land elsewhere, at a point never specified by the expedition.

This contact between Britons and Romans was highly important, as it was the first time that Britons had been exposed to Hellenic culture. Further, this meeting convinced Caesar, and later other emperors, that the Britons were very warlike, meaning that Rome would need to commit a substantial force if the hoped-for invasion would ever take place. On the British side, this contact introduced the Britons to Roman religion and military strategy. It set the stage for cultural diffusion, and when the Roman Empire fell, Britain helped to preserve Roman culture and technology.

50 CE – A town first appears at London

Approximately one hundred years after Caesar first came to Britain, a Roman settlement was created on the site of modern-day London. This site was chosen for its strategic value—the Thames River offered protection, easy travel, and direct trade. The town was called Londinium, after which the modern city is named. This first settlement was destroyed by a group of Britons known as the Iceni. However, the Romans quickly rebuilt the city to regain its strategic value.

During the second century, Rome moved its British capital to Londinium, and the city flourished. The city became a religious center, as well as a center for the arts and entertainment. Despite this, during the third century, Londinium began to decline, leading the Romans to build the London Wall as a measure of defense against Celtic tribes that desired to overthrow the Roman government. The footprint of that wall approximately covers modern London today, demonstrating how vital the wall was for the growth of London.

As the Roman Empire began to decline, so too did the settlement of Londinium. By the fifth century, Romans had abandoned Londinium, and the region was settled by Anglo-Saxons. However, much of Londinium was itself untouched, as the Anglo-Saxons preferred the surrounding area.

122 CE – Hadrian’s Wall is constructed

When Hadrian became the Roman emperor in 117 CE, Britain had been undergoing a period of rebellion, causing great difficulty for the Romans. Hadrian visited Britain in 122 CE, and during his tour, the structure known as Hadrian’s Wall underwent construction. Although Hadrian never left official evidence to explain the building of the wall, many historians believe it was designed to keep British “barbarians” out of Roman-controlled territory. The wall measured approximately 20 feet high, 10 feet wide, and 73 miles long.

Although a wall of such construction could not prevent small groups of people from passing, it was large enough to stop large groups, such as an army. Along the wall, castles were built to ensure its overall effectiveness and maintenance. At various locations, other fortifications were built—possibly intended as a toll road. Hadrian’s Wall marked the northern boundary of the Roman Empire and was a symbol to the Celts of the power and resources of the Roman Empire. Portions of the wall remain and can be visited today, reminding visitors of the lasting influence of Roman culture on British society. Once the wall was abandoned by Rome, more and more of the “barbarians” living in Britain began to migrate south toward Londinium. This migration would end with the invasion of Britain by mainland Europeans.

407 CE – The last Romans leave Britain

In the fifth century, Roman territories throughout Europe began to rebel and revolt. During this time, the city of Rome was in rapid decline, and, as such, the Romans struggled to keep control over its vast territory. Many Celtic tribes noticed the lack of attention that was being given to Britain and used this time to start reclaiming land. As the Romans no longer had the resources to police Britain, the solution was a gradual pullback of Roman troops and settlers. By approximately 407 CE, the last Roman soldiers were leaving Britain.

As the Roman influence in Britain waned, the Celtic culture began to dominate. For many Celts, an end to Roman rule was seen as a victory for freedom. However, in less than 50 years, a series of new invaders would come to Britain, and they would rule more completely than Rome ever did, making the departure of the Romans something of a mixed blessing for the Celts. Despite the influence of Celtic culture on British history, once invading tribes from Europe began to conquer Britain that influence decreased significantly, and Celtic peoples were displaced to the farthest regions of Great Britain. And it would all begin with an invasion by a group known as the Angles.

450 CE – Invasions by Angles, Saxons, and Jutes begin

After the departure of the Roman Empire and its soldiers from Britain, a power vacuum occurred in England. For a short time from 407 to 450 CE, Celtic peoples were free to self-govern. Then, in 450 CE, a series of invasions of Britain began. The first group to invade was a group known as the Angles. The Angles were a Germanic tribe from the northern region of what is known today as Germany. Seeking new territory and resources, the Angles began to invade the eastern portion of Britain, and they set up kingdoms that covered much of modern England and Scotland. The Britons and Celts were forced to flee to the western shores of Britain or live under the rule of the Angles.

Following the invasion of the Angles, a second group came to England seeking conquest. This group, the Saxons, came from the country known today as Denmark. The Saxons—not to be confused with the Danes—sought land of their own, and based on the success of the Angles, chose Britain as the target for their invasion.

The final group who invaded Britain were the Jutes, another Germanic tribe from the same region as the Saxons. Unusually, after the Jute invasion, the three separate tribes began to intermarry to avoid conflict, leading to the union of tribes that is now known as the Anglo-Saxons. These people transformed Britain from a Roman outpost to a Germanic center of culture. This shift had a lasting impact on the development of the language and culture that would become British in the future.

577 CE – Celts in Wales cut off from Celts in England

During the period of the Anglo-Saxon invasions, many of those who were of Celtic origin fled to the farthest reaches of Britain in order to escape the Anglo-Saxon rule. Two distinct groups of Celts banded together for protection, one in the area we know as Scotland, and the other in the area we know as Wales. In 577 CE, during the Anglo-Saxon conquest, the two groups of Celts were completely cut off from one another due to Anglo-Saxon troop movements.

As the Anglo-Saxons cemented their control of northwest England, the two groups of Celts were permanently separated from one another, leading to two very distinct cultures emerging in Wales and Scotland. Those Celts who would become Welsh maintained self-rule until 1283 when England conquered them, and the Scottish Celts remained independent until 1603 when a Scottish king assumed the throne of England. This separation had a great impact on the political reality of Britain, as, with three major groups vying for power, England was suddenly immersed in a series of conflicts.

865 CE – Danes invade Britain

Seeking territory, the Danes began a series of conquests in the early ninth century. Given the mineral and strategic value of Britain, it was not long before the Danes turned their attention towards the island. However, the Danes, who mounted an invasion in 865 CE, found a Celtic and Anglo-Saxon army waiting on the eastern shore hoping to prevent a landing. The Danes, being fierce warriors, were still able to land and carved out a section of Britain for their use.

And thus, in 865 CE, there were a total of five distinct kingdoms in Britain, and these separate kingdoms adopted the feudal system of continental Europe in an effort to protect themselves from the other kingdoms. These kingdoms would continue to war with one another in one form or another until 1707 when England, Scotland, and Wales were finally united into a single nation. This conflict shaped the character of the peoples involved, and it would have an impact on how the United Kingdom would rule its territories. A positive effect of the many kingdoms was that the culture that would ultimately emerge as English would have a wide range of legal precedents from which to craft its own body of law—a body of law that would go on to impact the legal traditions of much of the modern world.

871 CE – Alfred the Great becomes King of England

Throughout history, in moments of great crisis, strong individuals find a way to grasp power and shape world events with that power. One such example is Alfred the Great. Ethelred, Alfred’s brother and King of Wessex, died in 871. Ethelred and Alfred had an agreement that the throne would pass to Alfred instead of Ethelred’s sons, as they were far too young for such an office.

When Alfred became king, he was faced with the threat of a Viking invasion. His forces were not strong enough to expel the Vikings, and Alfred was forced to make peace. His efforts were successful, and the Vikings left Alfred’s holdings untouched. As a result, Alfred was able to turn his attention to matters of state.

Despite the fact that Alfred’s reign was full of further conflict (which allowed him to gain much territory for his people), his most notable achievements are in the fields of history and law. Alfred, who took the title “Great,” knew that a written history of his people would be of great value to future kings and leaders. So, Alfred commissioned a work known as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which was a comprehensive history from the time of Caesar’s conquest until Alfred’s rule. In fact, some copies of the Chronicle were updated for over two hundred years.

This work provides historians with the most complete picture of Medieval England that exists. It is also considered to be one of the earliest texts that contain Middle English, making it an important part of the English language’s morphology. Beyond this monumental effort to compile a history of the Anglo-Saxons, Alfred dedicated himself to law. Drawing on diverse sources, including the Old Testament, Alfred set about codifying law so that he could administer justice fairly to his people. Alfred’s legal code is the basis for the modern legal codes of both Great Britain and the United States, as well as many of the territorial possessions of the British Empire.

British Middle Ages

1066 CE – The Battle of Hastings

One of the most pivotal battles in British history was the Battle of Hastings. The fight occurred on October 14, 1066. It took place near the town of Hastings, which is located in southeast England. The conflict was between a French and Norman army under the command of William II, Duke of Normandy, and the Anglo-Saxon army, commanded by King Harold II. The battle occurred because the prior king, Edward the Confessor, died and succession was in doubt. When Harold II was crowned, William II was angered, believing in his own right to the throne.

During the battle, Harold was killed, although no definitive account of his death exists. It is believed that Harold died late in the battle, and that his death led to the collapse of his army. William was victorious, and, after securing the submission of Harold’s lieutenants, was crowned King of England on December 25, 1066. William faced several uprisings as king, but he was able to put them down, and his reign was secure. In order to have a full account of his vassals and their holdings, William commissioned the Domesday Book, which scholars speculate allowed him to increase taxes on his vassals.

1170 CE – Thomas Becket is killed

The Middle Ages in Europe was a time when the Catholic Church exerted enormous influence over almost every facet of life. Many kings owed their throne to the Pope, a situation that gave the Church great power in political matters. Unsurprisingly, many kings were not pleased with the authority of the Church and the way in which this authority gave bishops and cardinals the ability to act independently of a king and face little to no repercussions for their behavior.

In 1162, Thomas Becket was appointed to the position of archbishop of Canterbury, making him the most powerful religious figure in England at the time. It is believed that King Henry hoped Becket would help him usurp power from the Church, as Becket himself had only been made a member of the clergy the day before his election to archbishop. Instead, Becket sought to bring more power to the position, which put him and the king at great odds.

After much tension, Becket had Henry excommunicated from the Church. Henry’s anger was such that he ordered the death of Becket. On December 29, 1170, Henry’s knights found Becket and murdered him. Less than three years later, Pope Alexander III canonized Becket. The death of Becket at the hands of the king’s men is an example of the tension between the Church and state until well after the Protestant Reformation ended.

1189 CE – Richard I becomes King of England

Richard I is perhaps the most well-known English king in history (other than King Arthur, who evidence suggests never existed). His name has become associated with children’s stories, but even during his lifetime, he was seen as a hero to his people. Richard became king in 1189 when he forced his father, King Henry II, to name him as his heir, despite his father’s desire to name his younger son, John, as his heir. Henry died two days after making Richard his heir, leading some to believe that Richard had played a role in his father’s death, although no concrete evidence for that exists.

In any case, King Richard immediately turned his attention to the problem of the Crusades. In 1188, Jerusalem had fallen to Saladin, meaning that the Holy City was in the hands of invaders. Richard, answering the call of the Pope, began to prepare an invasion force to reclaim Jerusalem for the Church. By 1191, Richard had landed in Cyprus, and he did battle with Saladin’s troops. Richard was renowned for his courage on the battlefield to such an extent that he became known as “the Lionheart,” a descriptor that has continued into modern times. Although he never reached Jerusalem, Richard’s exploits went a long way in encouraging soldiers to seek glory on a Crusade. Richard the Lionheart was one of the few kings in history that was a noted warrior in addition to his prowess as a leader.

1215 CE – The Magna Carta is signed

After Richard’s death, his younger brother, John, became the ruler of England. Unlike Richard, who was seen as a noble and gifted king, John was weak and myopic. This weakness led to a revolt by the English nobles, who sought to overthrow John and replace him with a king of their liking. John met the nobles at Runnymede on the Thames River. At this meeting, the nobles offered John a choice—a volitional guarantee of the preservation of noble rights or a war with the nobles. John, knowing that his support was weak, chose to empower his nobles.

He did this by signing the Magna Carta, which not only gave irrevocable rights to the nobles but also curbed excesses of royal behavior and set the foundation for the protection of citizens under codified law. Due to the inclusion of certain provisions, the Magna Carta fundamentally set the nobility at odds with the king, as, according to the Magna Carta, the nobles could seize crown lands if the king, in their opinion, was failing to abide by the document. Despite the value of the Magna Carta, many historians view the document as a mixed blessing—simultaneously codifying law and paving the way for great internal conflict. Although the Magna Carta is not considered a constitution in any real sense, the principle of limiting government found in the document was central to much of the codified law that would follow.

1283 CE – Wales is conquered

In the thirteenth century, Wales, which had been populated by Celts, was split between natives of the region and Anglo-Saxon forces. This division made Wales a weak state and a promising target for England. Edward I, King of England, attempted to conquer Wales starting in 1277. Edward’s army had great success and began stripping away Welsh territory. In 1283, Edward conquered the entirety of Wales and claimed the lands for England.

After the conquest was complete, some of the land was given to English supporters, while the rest was made into a personal fief of the crown. Over time, kings began entrusting the care of Wales to their heir. The title for this position was Prince of Wales, and, over time, the tradition has been that the Prince of Wales is the titular head of the fief, and the prince maintains this title until ascending to the throne of England. This merger between the two states led to a decline in the native Celt population, meaning that the ethnicity of Wales shifted from Celtic to the Germanic-Norman-French mixture that is the backbone of English society.

1295 CE – The Model Parliament is called

After signing the Magna Carta, the nobles in England established Parliament—an advisory body to the king. Beyond being an advisory body, Parliament was responsible for raising taxes for the king. This was done to ensure that Parliament could shape the king’s actions by threatening to (or acting to) defund the king. This, in theory, would ensure cooperation between the king and his advisors.

Although Parliament and the ruling monarch have not always worked well together, in many cases, kings have learned to rely on Parliament, and England prospered during those times. In 1295, Edward I called Parliament in order to raise taxes for his military exploits. However, the relationship between Edward and his Parliament was such that the nobles were able to use the meetings as a method of airing grievances before the king.

Edward, being gifted at political strategy, understood the value of addressing his advisor’s concerns quickly and thoroughly. Parliament responded to Edward’s leadership by approving much of what he desired, and where they did not, worked with Edward to find solutions acceptable to all. This Parliament became known as the Model Parliament for two reasons: first, the structure of the Parliament was the basis for all parliaments that would follow, and second, the cooperation between both sides was a model of governmental cooperation for all future governments to emulate (if they chose to do so).

1337 CE – The Hundred Years’ War begins

Due to the complexities of royal intermarriages in a feudal system, lands that were traditionally part of one nation could be transferred to another nation based on the birth, death, or marriage of its monarch. Often, those who lived on the lands that were transferred between royal families found themselves suffering from the neglect of their current monarch. It follows then that many of these people would support a return to the oversight of their previous country. Add to this the natural desire of a country to expand its territory, and the prospects for conflict seemed inevitable.

In 1337, the ruling family of England, the Plantagenet family, began a war with the Valois family, who ruled France. The war was fought over control of France. Prior to the war, England had been a vassal of France, and, to control the English, the French threatened to claim English territory if the English were not responsive. The war itself would last for over one hundred years but was named the Hundred Years’ War as an approximation. During this conflict, five generations of kings and soldiers competed for control in the contested lands.

By the end of the war, Europe had fundamentally changed in several ways. First, the idea of conscripted peasant soldiers had been replaced by professional soldiers. Second, the war led to ideas of nationalism, a concept that did not exist in a feudal system. Thirdly, the war resulted in a loss of territorial possessions for both sides—meaning that England controlled English territory and vice versa. Finally, the war resulted in an end to the notion of chivalric behavior and noble warfare. Thanks to the loss of territorial possessions, many nobles in England were left discontent, and this loss is often attributed as a leading cause of the Wars of the Roses, which would take place after the Hundred Years’ War ended.

1348 CE – The Black Plague reaches Britain

Throughout the Middle Ages, trade with Asian countries had become a major source of materials and knowledge. However, diseases were also spread due to this trade. During the mid-1300s, rats carrying the bubonic plague (so known for the puss bubbles it caused) reached Europe. During the course of the pandemic, estimates put the death toll at almost one-quarter of the population of Europe. Without an understanding of epidemiology, no effective prophylaxis was possible, and the disease was left to run its course.

Britain, being an island, did not have an outbreak until later than mainland Europe, but, due to the small size of Britain, people had no place to evacuate to, nor any means of getting there if a plan was created. Because of these factors, the plague affected as many as half of all British citizens. As devastating as the plague was for most of Europe, it was almost twofold as harmful in Britain. This reduction in population had the effect of creating a labor shortage in Britain. The shortage led to an increase in the wages for laborers. However, many nobles opposed this increase in pay. The tension thus caused would lead to the Peasant’s Revolt, which began the downfall of the feudal system in England.

1455 CE – Wars of the Roses begin

When the Hundred Years’ War ended in 1453, the external threat facing Britain was diminished, allowing Englishmen to focus on internal problems that had been put aside in the face of a common enemy. One such issue was the issue of the legitimacy of the royal claim to the throne. Two factions of the royal House of Plantagenet each claimed they were the rightful heir to the throne. Some Englishmen supported the Duke of York, and others supported the House of Lancaster’s claimant, Henry Tudor. The conflict between the two parties became known as the Wars of the Roses as both families had a rose as their heraldic symbol.

The war began with the First Battle of St. Albans in 1455, and it lasted until 1487 when Henry Tudor defeated Richard III in battle. After ascending to the throne, Henry (now Henry VII) married the eldest York daughter, which added legitimacy to Henry’s claim to the throne. Henry established the Tudor Line, which would rule in England for over one hundred years. After the war, Henry took steps to ensure the longevity of his family, one of which was to execute any other potential claimant to the throne. Although this tactic is unseemly by modern standards, at the time, it was viewed as politically expedient, and as a measure of security for the realm; it protected the nation from another outdrawn struggle for the throne. In addition to gaining the throne, Henry paved the way for one of England’s most powerful kings—his son, Henry VIII.

Tudor England

1509 CE – Henry VIII becomes King of England

In 1509, Henry VII died, and his son Henry VIII assumed the throne. Henry was 17 at the time of his ascendancy. Henry then married Catherine of Aragon, the first of his six wives. He was obsessed with the line of his succession, and when Catharine was unable to provide him with a male heir, Henry divorced her. This divorce was not allowed under Catholic law, and in order to make the divorce stick, Henry was forced to break with the Catholic Church. To legitimize the divorce, Henry then proclaimed himself head of the Church of England, meaning that he had the authority to secure his own divorce.

Henry’s split from the Catholic Church was the beginning of the Protestant Reformation in England. As king and religious leader, Henry’s scope of power was largely unmatched by other monarchs, and he had the ability to act as he saw fit. After divorcing Catherine, Henry married Anne Boleyn. Anne’s inability to produce the required male heir led to her execution under charges of infidelity.

Henry immediately married Jane Seymour, who produced a male heir for Henry. Edward VI’s birth caused his mother’s death, after which Henry married Anne of Cleves. The marriage quickly ended in an annulment, and Henry married Catherine Howard. Catherine was put to death when details of her infidelity emerged.

Finally, Henry married Catherine Parr, his last wife. Catherine oversaw the keeping of Henry, who suffered from obesity, and (many scholars postulate) a rampant case of syphilis. Catherine was more nurse than wife to Henry, and she outlived her husband. Henry had been the epitome of an absolute ruler, but, despite this, had left England in a vastly better state than it had been prior to his kingship.

1534 CE – The Church of England is created

In order to marry his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, Henry VIII was required to obtain special dispensation from the Pope. The Pope assented as Catherine was his niece, and the marriage would be of great advantage to her. After the wedding, Henry aided the Church in several matters, and the Pope gave Henry the title Defender of the Faith in appreciation for his aid.

In 1534, Henry sought to annul his marriage to Catherine, in order to marry a fertile woman who could provide Henry with a male heir. However, given the dispensation previously given, as well as the Pope’s familial connection with Catherine, the request was refused. Henry, in a fit of rage, severed his and England’s submission to the Catholic Church.

In order to appease the people of England, and to provide legitimacy for his divorce, Henry created the Church of England and named himself its head. This action was the beginning of the Protestant Reformation in England. The Anglican Church taught doctrines that were in direct conflict with the Catholic Church. This was done to lead people away from obeying the Catholic Church into obeying the Anglican Church. However, while much of the substance was changed, Henry kept the outward trappings and ceremonies held by the Catholic Church. This was done to elevate Henry and his handpicked leadership to assume the unquestioned authority that the Pope and the Catholic Church had claimed for hundreds of years. Although this reformation was not directly responsible for the mainland Reformation, it certainly provided an example for the common people to follow.

1553 CE – Mary Tudor becomes Queen of England

In 1547, Henry VIII died, and his son Edward VI assumed the throne of England. At the time, Edward was nine years old. As a frail, sickly child, Edward was not a strong monarch, and most decisions were made by a regency council in his name. During his time as king, his regents made Anglicanism the official religion of England.

When it became apparent that Edward would likely not live into adulthood, a series of plans were made by his regents in order to secure the line of succession in such a way as to protect the Protestant movement in England. However, when Edward died in 1553, his half-sister, Mary, secured control of the throne. Mary had been raised as a devout Catholic, and she was deeply angered by the creation of the Anglican Church. Upon reaching the throne, Mary took a series of steps to reinstate Catholicism as the official religion of England—steps that included the imprisonment, torture, and murder of Protestants. These actions earned her the nickname Bloody Mary. In 1558, Mary died during an outbreak of influenza.

1558 CE – Elizabeth Tudor becomes Queen of England

Upon the death of her half-sister Mary, Elizabeth Tudor (now Elizabeth I) ascended to the throne of England. Elizabeth had none of the religious convictions of either of her half-siblings but understood the need to resolve the Catholic-Anglican issue once and for all. So, she issued a decree that has become known as the Elizabethan Settlement which stated that while the Anglican Church was the official church in England, but Catholics were free to worship as they saw fit, under the proviso that they maintained the English Crown as their first allegiance.

Upon settling this issue, Elizabeth set out on a program of social and economic reform. Elizabeth spent a great deal of time among the common people, which garnered her the nickname Good Queen Bess. Elizabeth never married; instead, she devoted herself to England.

During Elizabeth’s reign, the arts flourished. Elizabeth was a patron of Shakespeare, and she was so popular among the artists that Edmund Spenser made a version of Elizabeth as the protagonist of his epic The Faerie Queene. Elizabeth was also responsible for much of England’s exploration of the New World and the raiding of Spanish and Portuguese ships. Her navy dealt a crushing blow to the Spanish Armada, which cemented England as the world’s preeminent sea power. For all of these things, Elizabeth is widely regarded as one of the most effective monarchs in English history.

1564 CE – William Shakespeare is born

Six years after Queen Elizabeth I took the throne of England, William Shakespeare was born. Almost universally, Shakespeare is considered the greatest English playwright in history, and his 38 plays are performed more often than any plays by any other playwrights. Shakespeare played a pivotal role in English history, as he transformed the English theater.

Prior to Shakespeare, most plays were either of Greek origin or performed in the Greek style. Shakespeare wrote plays for the common man, and he filled them with humor designed for the intelligentsia. His work with sonnets changed the form to such an extent that one of the two types of sonnet is named after him (the Shakespearean sonnet). More than any other writer, Shakespeare staked a claim for English literature in the annals of history. His work continues to be performed and adapted, and his contribution to English culture cannot be overlooked.

1588 CE – The British defeat the Spanish Armada

During the reign of Elizabeth I, many royal suitors approached her with an eye toward marriage. Elizabeth, knowing that her army could not withstand an invasion, was forced into a difficult position. If she married, her rejected suitors might band together to conquer England, and, if she refused individual suitors, they, in anger, might also attempt to conquer England.

Elizabeth took the only course that she felt was prudent—instead of outright refusals of marriage, Elizabeth behaved coyly and feigned weakness and stupidity in the presence of her suitors. These men could not then take offense at her reticence to marry. Despite the plurality of suitors, not every nation sought an alliance with England, most notably Spain. King Philip II was Elizabeth’s brother-in-law, but, as a Catholic, viewed Elizabeth as an illegitimate heir due to her father’s proclivities.

Philip sought to end Elizabeth’s reign and restore a Catholic monarch to the throne. To that end, in 1588, Philip gathered a fleet of ships to begin an invasion of England. The fleet, known as the Spanish Armada, was made up of 130 ships and almost 30,000 sailors. This fleet was one of the largest ever gathered, and Philip had no doubt that his invasion would be successful.

However, fortune was not with the Spanish. As the fleet reached Britain, a massive storm struck, and the Spanish fleet—comprised of very large but slow ships—struggled to match the speed and maneuverability of the British fleet. Under the command of Sir Francis Drake, the British navy pummeled the Spanish, and the Spanish were forced to retreat. During the fighting, almost half of the Spanish fleet was sunk, and almost one-third of Spain’s soldiers were killed. As the Armada represented the vast bulk of Spain’s military power, the defeat in 1588 marked Spain’s decline as a world power and announced that England had become a major world player.

The British Empire

1600 CE – The East India Company is created

After the destruction of the Spanish Armada, England became a major international force. In both military and trade matters, England began asserting its power. Queen Elizabeth knew that the most effective way to influence global events was through trade. As such, Elizabeth authorized the creation of the East India Company in 1600. The East India Company was the first company given the authority to act in the name of the queen, without the queen’s oversight, except in a distant way.

The East India Company controlled all of England’s imports and exports in Asia. The company was responsible for supplying Britain with tea and other important goods, and it was responsible for maintaining a favorable balance of trade between England and the countries it traded with. The profit for transporting tea to England was so great that the English began giving the Chinese opium in exchange. Ultimately, this led to a severe problem in China, but it allowed the British to continue profiting from trade. The company was also instrumental in England’s efforts to colonize India. In a very real way, the East India Company is responsible for making England a power around the entire world. At one point, it was rightly said that “The sun never sets on the British Empire.”

1603 CE – James I becomes King of England

Queen Elizabeth died in 1603, without an heir, meaning that the line of English succession was once again in question. In her place rose James Stuart, the heir to the throne of Scotland. James was also Elizabeth’s cousin, as Henry VII was his grandfather as well as hers. This meant that James had a legitimate claim to the English throne, one that was unmatched by others.

As such, James Stuart was crowned James I of England in 1603. He moved from Scotland to England and ruled both states, as well as Ireland. James was known as a scholar and a patron of the arts. During his reign, Shakespeare, Donne, and Jonson all produced some of their finest works. Being a very religious man, James sought to obtain an authoritative version of the Bible, one that would be the standard for all under his reign. So, in 1611, the Authorized King James Version of the Bible was produced. This version sought to be the most accurate translation of the Bible while emphasizing submission to authority. James was loved by his people, as his reign was a time of peace.

1605 CE – The Gunpowder Plot

After Elizabeth I died, many Catholics living in England had hope that James I would restore Catholicism as the official religion in England. However, James was unable to accomplish this task, leaving many Catholics angry at his seeming inaction. As a result, a group of these disenchanted men began to plot an assassination attempt. The attempt was to occur on November 5, 1605, during the opening session of Parliament when the king would be in attendance. However, a letter of unknown origins was delivered to the House of Commons (where the attempt would take place) on November 4, stating the plans of the assassins. Very quickly, a search was begun in the House of Commons and, in the basement, a man named Guy Fawkes was discovered guarding enough gunpowder to level the building, which would have killed everyone inside.

Fawkes had spent much of his life fighting against Protestantism, and so the Gunpowder Plot was simply the next step. Fawkes was tortured until he confessed, at which time he was sentenced to death. While waiting to be hung, Fawkes fell off the platform, severed his spine, and avoided the death sentence as he had already died. The Gunpowder Plot is still commemorated in modern times, usually by burning an effigy of Fawkes.

1642 CE – Isaac Newton is born

On December 25, 1642, Isaac Newton was born in the town of Woolsthorpe. Newton is regarded by the scientific community as one of the most important contributors to the fields of physics, mathematics, and optics. Newton first published his Laws of Motion in his work Principia in 1687. These laws have become the basis for describing the universe and the interactions between objects.

In order to better calculate the motion of the stars, Newton (along with Gottfried Leibniz) created the mathematical branch of calculus. Between calculus and the Laws of Motion, Newton successfully described all motion in the universe except for quantum mechanics, which is governed by an entirely different set of laws.

Newton’s work was so pioneering that even modern science cannot dispute his findings, nor find ways to work around those laws. Calculus, while being misunderstood by many, is the math of integrating unlike variables together to create mathematical models of physical behavior. This math has applications in art, architecture, business, engineering, and even in evaluating the stock market.

Newton also used this math to finally, and ultimately, disprove the geocentric theory of the universe. Newton’s work was so seminal that, upon his death, he was buried in Westminster Abbey, where, traditionally, only royalty had been buried. Newton was a forerunner of the scientific revolution, demonstrating that England had become a land of education and culture and not merely a military power.

1653 CE – Oliver Cromwell becomes Lord Protector of England

In 1642, the English Civil War began. Charles I, the son and successor of James I, was despised by his subjects, notably for being unwilling to work with Parliament for the good of England. At the end of the Civil War, Charles I was executed, and a period known as the Commonwealth of England began.

In 1653, Oliver Cromwell, a leading figure who fought against the king, declared himself Lord Protector of England. Under this title, Cromwell had the power of a king, but the name gave promise that Cromwell would give up his power when England was ready.

Cromwell was a very religious man, who held himself to a high moral standard, and he believed that his destiny was to rule England to protect it from the abuses of a monarch. In reality, under Cromwell (who created laws of great severity), the English people fared little better than under a king. In fact, when Cromwell died, he passed his title to his son, who was so unpopular that the people of England petitioned for a king to replace him. This set the stage for the Glorious Revolution, which would alter the nature of the monarchy and its relationship to the people forever.

1666 CE – The Great Fire of London

As has occurred to many major cities throughout history, the city of London was the scene of a severe fire in 1666. Starting on September 2, 1666, at Thomas Farriner’s bakery on Pudding Lane, the fire burned until September 5. Due to a drought that London had been suffering for over a year, the wooden houses in the district were quickly swept up in the fire.

The main firefighting technique of the time was to create firebreaks (starting a small, controlled fire to burn up fuel in the path of the oncoming main fire) and let the fire burn itself out. However, the mayor of London was slow to issue orders to the firefighters, and the fire spread throughout London.

The fire demolished all of London that remained inside of the Roman wall created approximately 1,500 hundred years prior. Over the course of three days, the fire consumed as much as eighty-eight percent of the homes in London, as well as eighty-seven churches and St. Paul’s Cathedral.

London was eventually rebuilt, but the extent of the damage was such that property issues came into play. Instead of building a modern city, London was rebuilt to its original plan with only slight modifications for fire safety.

Looking on the bright side, some historians believe that the fire prevented a plague epidemic, as it killed the rats, lice, and fleas that would have been carriers.

1688 CE – The Glorious Revolution takes place

After the execution of Charles I and the death of Oliver Cromwell, the people of England sought a king to replace Richard Cromwell, the new lord protector. Charles II, the son of Charles I was chosen to rule. His son, James II, ruled after his father, and he was despised by the people. The English distaste for James II was so great that the people sought a new monarch from outside of England.

They settled on William III of Orange and his wife, Mary. With the people’s support, William made plans to enter England and seize the throne from James. James was offered a choice—vacate his throne or be executed. James chose to leave.

In 1689, prior to William’s ascension to the throne, William was forced by Parliament to sign the English Bill of Rights. When this was agreed to, William became the King of England. This transfer of power became known as the Glorious Revolution because it executed a change of power without bloodshed. Further, the English Bill of Rights gave Parliament far greater control over the king, and this was the beginning of transitioning to a constitutional, parliamentary monarchy, a first in English history.

1707 CE – Acts of Union

For much of English history, English kings had sought to bring Scotland under their rule. Although this occurred, the two states were never formally joined together; instead both were ruled independently by the same monarch. In 1707, Parliament passed the Acts of Union, which in effect was a treaty between England and Scotland to unify the two states permanently.

For the English, these Acts were seen as a measure to prevent anyone other than the English king from taking the Scottish throne, thus enabling a king to form alliances with other kingdoms who sought to weaken England. For the Scottish, the Acts were a potential method to economic prosperity. With the passage of the Acts, Scotland became part of the United Kingdom, as well as Great Britain.

After the passage of the Acts, Scotland became a fully enabled member of the United Kingdom and was entitled to, and given, all of the rights given to citizens of the United Kingdom.

1780 CE – The Industrial Revolution begins

When discussing a series of events that take place over a wide range of time, but are lumped together as a single event, parsing out the dates of these events becomes difficult. This is particularly true of the period known as the Industrial Revolution. Although agricultural advances had been taking place for well over two hundred years, it wasn’t until approximately 1780 that the Industrial Revolution was firmly underway in England.

During the revolution, machines that at one time had been powered by humans were now powered by running water (such as a rivers or streams), and then by animals powering motors, and finally by engines that used combustion as a power source. Manufacturing also underwent a radical shift. Prior to this time, all goods were handmade by craftsmen in their homes. The process was slow, expensive, and goods could not easily be replaced. Thanks to the Industrial Revolution, a new process known as the Factory System took hold. In this system, goods were made in part by humans and in part by machines, and they were produced in mass quantities for the first time. Without the Industrial Revolution, the concept of interchangeable parts would not exist, and modern conveniences would merely be a dream. The Factory System prized efficiency—both in time and money—and not skilled craftsmanship. This fundamental change introduced the concept of consumerism, which played a large role in the creation of capitalism as it is understood today.

1783 CE – Britain signs the Treaty of Paris, giving America independence

As the Industrial Revolution was beginning to take hold in England, the matter of colonial governance became a central issue for the British government. In particular, the colonies in America were in the midst of a rebellion, which was costly and time-consuming for the British. In 1781, George Washington and his army forced the British commander, Charles Cornwallis, to surrender.

Between then and 1783, both the British government and the fledgling American government struggled to find an acceptable peace accord. In 1783, representatives from both nations met in Paris (of value as a neutral location) to sign the Treaty of Paris. This treaty gave America its independence from England.

The terms of the treaty were designed to favor America, as the British government sought a new trading partner, and they were afraid that a harsh treaty would strengthen the alliance between America and France, which would result in a loss of trade and revenue for the British. The treaty marked out the boundaries of the territory ceded by England, as well as preserving some territory (located in Canada) for the British Crown. Although this treaty ended the war with America, it would not be until after the War of 1812 that America would become full trading partners with England.

1798 CE – Edward Jenner discovers the smallpox vaccine

During the Industrial Revolution, one of the most deadly diseases in the world was smallpox. Similar to cowpox and chickenpox, this disease is noted for the marks it leaves on the skin of the infected. However, unlike chickenpox and cowpox, smallpox is highly contagious in humans and often lethal. As many as 35 percent of the humans infected would die during outbreaks of smallpox, making it even more deadly than the Black Plague.

In 1798, Edward Jenner, a scientist, released a brand new form of medication—a vaccine. Jenner had noted that people infected with cowpox could relatively easily fight off the smallpox virus, while those who had not had cowpox could not. Working in secret, and with very small groups, Jenner began infecting test subjects with cowpox to validate his hypothesis. By 1798, Jenner was confident that his vaccine was effective, and he released it to the public. Besides making the first man-made vaccine in history, Jenner opened up the possibility of curing other diseases via a similar method. The WHO (World Health Organization) declared that smallpox had been eradicated worldwide in 1979, and it was thanks to the efforts of Jenner in 1798.

1815 CE – Napoleon is defeated at Waterloo

In 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte became the Emperor of France. During a series of wars, Napoleon set up a government known as the Continental System, which allowed him to rule a vast majority of Europe. As this system was designed to force England into submission, it naturally drew British anger. In 1814, after a disastrous campaign in Russia, Napoleon was forced to abdicate, and he was sent to the Isle of Elba as a prisoner. But, in 1815, Napoleon returned to France and resumed his attempt to conquer Europe.

In June 1815, Napoleon met a British army at Waterloo, which is part of modern-day Belgium. Thanks to the tactics of the British commander, the Duke of Wellington, Napoleon was defeated. He was sent into permanent exile on the island of St. Helena, where he died. After the Battle of Waterloo, Britain entered a time of peace and prosperity. It was a time where, once again, Britain was the premier power in the world. Napoleon’s defeat also signaled the start of a time of technological progress and economic advancement in Europe, and the beginning of an alliance system that would ultimately result in World War I, almost exactly one hundred years later.

1859 CE – Charles Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species

During the 1830s, Charles Darwin, an English naturalist, joined an expedition to explore the coast of South America. The HMS Beagle was the ship that had been selected for the voyage. During a stop at the Galapagos Islands, Darwin began to investigate the dispersion of finches that he observed. Over time, as he took notes of his findings, Darwin formulated an idea that explained his findings.

Over the next 20 years, Darwin meticulously checked his findings to ensure that he had made no errors. And, in 1859, he published On the Origin of Species, a book that summarized his studies in detail. The main thrust of the book was a concept called natural selection—the idea that whatever animal has the most beneficial adaptation to an environment will breed the most often, thus out-breeding its competition. In that way, species would evolve to best meet the needs of their environment.

Using this idea and working backward, Darwin postulated that all animals could conceivably come from a common ancestor, although Darwin made no effort to determine what that ancestor might be. Darwin’s theory has become the backbone of evolutionary biology and related scientific fields. Despite being mired in some controversy, Darwin’s discovery paved the way for other discoveries in the field of biology.

1899 CE – The Boer War begins

The late 1800s was a time of expansion and colonization for many European nations. As the majority of the world had been populated, European countries turned their attention to Africa, which remained largely unsettled. The southern portion of Africa was of interest to two groups—the Dutch and the English. The Dutch viewed this land as excellent farmland, while the British sought the mineral wealth of the region.

Conflict between the competing nations broke out in 1899. It was called the Boer War because the war pitted Dutch farmers (called Boers) who fought for their freedom, against the British, who sought dominion over all of South Africa. During the Boer War, the British were able to claim victory, and thus, all territory that had been controlled by the Dutch. This war was an example of the violence that came with empire building, and became the central theme in World War I. Further, although the British did not know that World War I was coming, this war allowed the British army to polish its skills and perfect its fighting tactics. Oddly, despite the Boer War, the British and the Dutch became allies, and the two would fight together during the upcoming war.

Modern England

1914 CE – World War I begins

On June 28, 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a young Serbian nationalist, assassinated the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, while Ferdinand was visiting the city of Sarajevo, Bosnia. After the assassination, Austria (the home of Ferdinand) demanded that Serbia voluntarily surrender to Austria. If they refused, Austria would conquer them by force. When the ultimatum expired on July 28, Austria attacked Serbia, and World War I had its beginning.

After Germany (an Austrian ally) invaded Belgium on August 4, England declared war on Germany and Austria. England entered the war to win back the freedom of Belgium, its ally. Britain’s entry into the war forced Germany to adopt a new strategy, which, over the course of the next four years, would ultimately result in Germany surrendering.

During the war, the British made great strides in military technology, and it was the British who first introduced tanks on the battlefield. The tank, although clumsy and slow at the time, would continue to develop over the next 20 years to become the backbone of ground wars into the next century. After the war concluded, Britain was a major player involved in creating the Treaty of Versailles, which would bring an end to the war. Sadly, the treaty would sow the seeds of World War II, as opposed to ending war forever, as it had been intended.

1936 CE – George VI becomes King of England

In 1936, George V, King of England, died, and his eldest son, Edward VIII, assumed the throne. However, Edward wanted to marry a divorcee named Wallis Simpson. Parliament advised Edward that he would not be able to marry Simpson and still remain king. Edward chose to abdicate, and his younger brother, George VI, ascended to the throne. George VI had served in the military during World War I and was familiar with strategy and tactics—a trait that would serve England well during World War II.

During George’s reign, the dissolution of the British Empire accelerated, while the Commonwealth of Nations was forged. The Commonwealth was an organization of former colonies of England that, while still recognizing the British monarch, had complete freedom to self-govern. The Commonwealth is more of an alliance of a shared heritage than an actual structure of governance. Beyond the Commonwealth, George is credited as having been a source of strength and hope for his people during the early phases of World War II. George fathered Elizabeth II, who, upon his death, would assume the throne of England.

1939 CE – World War II begins

Throughout the late 1930s, Germany, under the leadership of Adolf Hitler, annexed a great deal of territory. In September 1938, leaders of major European nations met with Hitler to put an end to his territorial ambitions. During the meeting, Neville Chamberlain, Prime Minister of England, proposed to let Hitler annex a portion of Czechoslovakia, in exchange for a promise that Germany would end its expansion at that point. Hitler ostensibly agreed, the Munich Pact was signed, and many leaders believed that war had been averted.

However, Hitler did not keep his promise, and he invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. With the invasion of Poland, England and France declared war on Germany. In disgrace, Chamberlain resigned his post, and Winston Churchill became the prime minister. From 1939 until 1941, it appeared to the world that Hitler’s army was unstoppable. His army met with success after success, and France was captured less than a month after Germany invaded. During the early phase of the war, England sent troops to aid France, but kept much of its force in reserve, in case Hitler attempted an invasion of England. During World War II, England underwent a great change. For the first time in several hundred years, England was no longer a dominant world power, and although still strong, did not have the might to defeat Germany. This position would be reinforced by the Battle of Britain in 1940.

1940 CE – The Battle of Britain is fought

After securing France, Belgium, and Poland, Hitler turned his attention toward Britain in 1940. Hitler knew that an invasion of Britain by sea would likely fail unless aided in other ways. To prepare for the invasion, Hitler launched a series of attacks against England, known as the Battle of Britain. For the first time in history, a major battle was fought completely in the air. Hitler sent bombers over England, and parts of London was destroyed. So much damage was done that people began living in subway stations, as they were deep enough underground to escape damage.

During this time, Winston Churchill proved himself to be a hero to the British people. Churchill would visit bomb sites as well as those living in the subway. Churchill understood that the battle was largely psychological and that if Hitler was successful, the people of England might surrender prior to an invasion. However, thanks to the dedicated efforts of Churchill, his staff, and the British military, Hitler’s air force was defeated, leaving Hitler’s military weakened, just as it prepared to launch an invasion in Russia. Although it took several years to fully rebuild London, the attitudes and actions of the British during the battle demonstrated just how strongly committed to freedom the British people were.

1949 CE – George Orwell’s book, 1984, is published

In the wake of the fascist governments that had arisen in Europe during the 1930s, the world became preoccupied with preventing fascism from taking hold in new places.

George Orwell, an English writer, dealt with this topic in his novel 1984. In the book, the government seeks to maintain control over its people not only through physical means, but by limiting the thinking process of the citizenry and stripping it of enough language to prevent communication of heretical thought. In Orwell’s novel, he paints a dystopian future so bleak that it frightened many of his readers. This was Orwell’s intent, as he hoped to warn others about the dangers of letting go of language and thought. Although much of what Orwell wrote is still wildly prophetic, many linguists are concerned that Orwell’s predictions might be correct.

1952 CE – Elizabeth Windsor becomes Queen of England

In 1951, George VI was found to have lung cancer. In an attempt to prolong his life, one of his lungs was removed. But some months later, in 1952, he died of a blood clot in his heart. Upon his death, his eldest daughter, Elizabeth II, ascended the throne of England. Elizabeth remains queen to this day, and she has served as monarch longer than any other ruler in English history.

During her reign, India, a former British colony, gained full independence. Along with India, several other countries, such as Jamaica and Belize have gained their independence during her rule. One of the few dark moments during her reign was the Suez Crisis, which made England look bad to most of the world.

Despite the Suez Crisis, Elizabeth has done much to popularize the monarchy with the common people, even going so far as to be a part of the James Bond opening of the 2012 London Olympic Games. Although the monarchy in England has become more of a titular position than one of power, Elizabeth has continued to be the voice and face of government to her people. Despite several personal tragedies, including the deaths of her father, sister, mother, and daughter-in-law, Elizabeth continues to be very much a public monarch, which, given her age, is a testament to her sense of duty to her people.

1956 CE – Suez Crisis in Egypt

In 1956, Israel went to war with Egypt over control of both the Sinai Peninsula and the Suez Canal. During the fight, which lasted just over one week, British and French troops were sent to help Israel secure the Suez Canal and, hopefully, remove the Egyptian leader Abdel Nasser. England wanted to regain control of the canal that they had built so that they could reap the benefits in trade that controlling the canal would provide.

In order to prevent a full-scale war, the United States and the Soviet Union put pressure on England, France, and Israel to withdraw from Egypt. When England withdrew, this action signified that England had fully lost its place as a world power, and it had been relegated to a strong ally of the United States, who had taken on the role of world power during World War II. Despite this, England maintained a powerful military, as well as a large nuclear strike force. Even though all empires must eventually decline, England has used its decline as a method of focusing on internal improvement as opposed to external dominance. After the Suez Crisis ended, in an effort to appear magnanimous, England began to relinquish even more control over the territories that it still held, so that it might regain its standing in the eyes of the rest of the world.

1965 CE – Britain abolishes capital punishment

In the 1800s, Parliament began to recognize that England had many crimes that were punishable by death; at one point, over two hundred offenses were capital crimes. Throughout the 1800s, a series of reforms were passed that reduced not only the number of offenses that were capital but also reduced the types of crimes that were capital offenses.

In the early 1900s, Parliament passed laws making the execution of persons under the age of 16 illegal. In the 1940s, Parliament prepared to introduce a temporary moratorium on the death penalty, to determine what impact this moratorium would produce. However, public opinion did not favor this course, and Parliament withdrew the moratorium.

In 1965, a five-year suspension on the death penalty was invoked—again, to test its efficacy—and, in 1969, the suspension was made permanent. The death penalty would remain in place for treason until 1998, at which time England became a signatory to the European Convention on Human Rights, which prohibits all capital punishment except during a time of war. Although there are still people who support the death penalty in England, the vast majority support the ECHR and its stance on the value and dignity of human life.

1979 CE – Margaret Thatcher becomes the first woman to be prime minister

In 1979, the Conservative Party in England, which at the time controlled Parliament, elected Margaret Thatcher as prime minister. Not only was Thatcher the first woman to be elected prime minister, but she also served a longer term than any other PM during the twentieth century. Thatcher gained the nickname Iron Lady due to her strength and character.

Thatcher became the prime minister during a time of economic sluggishness, so she focused much of her effort on long-term recovery projects. Also during her tenure, the Falklands War was fought and won by the British.

Thatcher favored an economic policy known as deregulation, whereby the government decreased the regulation of an industry in order to make that industry more profitable. Although Thatcher was not always popular with Parliament or the common people, she had a fierce resolve and a determination to act in the best interests of her country. Thatcher also went a long way in strengthening the relationship that England had with the United States, and that relationship would prove beneficial to the United States during the Gulf War in Iraq in 1991.

1982 CE – The Falklands War is waged

Near the southern tip of Argentina lie two small chains of islands: the Falkland Islands and the South Georgia Islands. Control of these islands had belonged to England since 1833. However, Argentina, looking to expand its territory, began eyeing the Falkland Islands. In 1982, Argentina, believing Britain would not be able to defend its territories, invaded the islands. The British response was swift—a naval task force was sent to the islands to defeat the Argentinian military and reclaim the islands for the British.

During the conflict, which lasted ten weeks, six British ships and one Argentinian ship were sunk. At the end of the war, Argentina withdrew its forces, and the islands remained under British control, although Argentina added the islands to a list of its possessions as part of its constitution. The conflict in the Falklands demonstrated yet again that the British Empire had become very weak (what little was left of it), and that Britain did not have the resources to mount a full-scale war to protect its possessions. Despite the conflict and the decided lack of meaningful resolution, friendly relations between England and Argentina resumed in 1989.

1994 CE – The Chunnel opens

In 1985, the French and British governments began accepting proposals to build a rail tunnel under the English Channel so that France and England could be connected by a rail line. A total of ten construction companies banded together to undertake this massive project. Digging in England began at Shakespeare Cliff, and digging in France began at Sangatte.

The Channel Tunnel, or Chunnel, would consist of two separate rail tunnels and a third service tunnel. The two tunnels first met in 1990, although the Chunnel would not be open until 1994. The completed rail line runs a distance of 31 miles, has tunnel diameters of 25 feet, and runs 250 feet below the sea level.

The completion of the Chunnel not only marked a high point in intra-European relations, but it also demonstrated the technical capabilities that could be brought to bear given the proper circumstances. Lessons learned during construction of the Chunnel would help during the construction of the Large Hadron Collider (particle accelerator/collider) in France and Switzerland during the 1990s and 2000s. Finally, the completion of the Chunnel indicated to the world that although England might not be the dominant power it once was, it was still a nation with advanced technology and engineering.

2012 CE – The London Olympic Games are staged

As is always the case, the Olympic Games, whether summer or winter, is the result of incredible planning and hard work. When it was announced that London would host the 2012 Summer Olympic Games, planning was immediately put into effect. When England submitted its Olympic bid, emphasis was placed on not only rebuilding parts of London that were in poor condition but also making the entire Olympics as sustainable and green as possible.

The Games were to be a showcase of British engineering and artistry. In several venues, the construction of facilities was designed so that the buildings could be turned over to the public, who could use the structures year round. In all areas, construction underwent scrutiny so that buildings could be completed as quickly, cheaply, and efficiently as possible.

The Olympic pool, used for the swimming events, was a radical redesign that would encourage fast swimming and great excitement for the fans. During the Opening Ceremonies, a history of England was staged using hundreds of actors to paint a brief and exciting picture of British history. Queen Elizabeth agreed to be part of a James Bond stunt entrance to the Olympic Stadium, where the crowds were thrilled to see what appeared to be the Queen of England parachuting from a helicopter. The entire Opening Ceremony was a wonderful display of the rich history that is England, and it reminded the world of just how large a role England has had in shaping the modern world.

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A Timeline of British History

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